In every stage of a nation’s career from barbarism to civilisation, there are many conditions involved. The underlying causes of progress in the early stages being so remote and varied that they often elude investigation; still, if some of the salient points of the process can be reached, the social phenomena may be partially realised: if the surrounding circumstances of early tribes can be ascertained, patient research may elicit valuable results. It is exceedingly interesting to search for the causes and the influences which have operated upon the life of our early ancestors in their many struggles. To trace the light of consciousness dawning, and experience slowly becoming more effective, gradually dispelling the mists of far-gone ages—the spirits, myths, and legends, which enveloped the minds and affected the thoughts and emotions of our early kindred—till the flickering rays of intelligence ascended the horizon, and the shadows and myths receded, step by step into the background. Yet the many retarding influences and circumstances constantly recurring, and the difficulties and obstacles encountered at every turn, were only slowly overcome by the persistent energy of man. As time rolled on, original thought was developed, new influences and agencies arose and came into operation, which tended to subdue the ruder features of the race and to promote social organisation and advance culture; and when these became effectual, the people gradually emerged from the trammels of ignorance and superstition, and at last enjoyed a more secure and happier life.
Any attempt to indicate the causes which have induced a number of scattered tribes, almost living in a primitive state, to pass through the various stages of progress to a comparatively high civilisation, must examine many conflicting agencies. The difficulties of truly assigning the effects of different causes, especially in the early stages, are very great, where ascertained facts are few and the phenomena so obscure; while the natural tendency of the human mind to generalise upon incomplete data is not easily resisted. Scotland offers a fair and tempting field for the study of this subject. Inasmuch as we find man living there in a very early stage, and can trace the social organisation of tribes, their conflicts issuing in the foundation of a monarchy, and the development of an intense nationality; and the beginnings of industry, of art, and of culture among the people, and their continuous progress, through the various stages of civilisation, onward to the present time. In this period, extending over four thousand years, we can study the various agencies and influences, and the different historic conditions which successively arose, and controlled the stream of events and moulded the historic phenomena. Thus the aboriginal race which long occupied the country, were subdued and absorbed by another race, which in turn were invaded by powerful enemies, but the natives made a vigorous resistance. After this, other migrations and invasions followed, issuing in new historic conditions, which contributed to the extension of the kingdom, and the development of the nation. In the natural course of events the kingdom fell under the influence of foreign interference, which led to new invasions and determined attempts to conquer the nation. The people resisted, and a long struggle for liberty and independence ensued, which, in its heroic features of resistance to oppression and the importance of its ultimate result, is unmatched in the annals of any nation. While later, internal political and religious conflicts were manifested in a variety of forms, and constitute an exceedingly interesting and important part of the national history. Thus, although some countries have a greater history than Scotland, few have a longer, a more eventful, or a more peculiarly interesting one.
The work does not profess to present an exhaustive political history. This branch will be treated according to its comparative importance in the different periods, and the relative value of its facts and phenomena, viewed as a factor in the general movement of the nation. The main aim of the work being to reach the moral and intellectual factors of progress, and especially to present ample details of the material and social conditions of each period; and thus embracing all the causes, agencies, and influences, in a connected scheme, to unfold the successive stages of the progress, the culture, and the development of the civilisation of the people.
As the term civilisation, in its widest import, includes all the material and intellectual products, the religion and social organisations and institutions of a civilised nation, a disquisition on the elements of these complex subjects would be out of character in this section. From my standpoint, historically, civilisation began with the first conscious efforts of man, whenever he began to act with an end in view, such as to make weapons to defend himself or implements to procure food: and this is sometimes called the primitive state, from which mankind have gradually advanced in culture, more or less, according as surrounding nature, circumstances, and historic conditions, were favourable to their progress, or the reverse. To trace and explain such a progress and development in the limited area of Scotland is the conception and end of this work; so the prehistoric ages will be treated in a concise and connected form onward into the historic age, and associated with the manifold causes, circumstances, changes, and influences, which have operated upon the people, and ultimately resulted in our present stage of civilisation.
The primary causes of civilisation may be shortly indicated thus:—1, The human mind itself; 2, Surrounding nature, including climate, soil, and natural products; 3, Historical conditions; and 4, Social and material conditions. The mind of man is the prime factor of civilisation, and unless this is recognised no satisfactory explanation of development and progress can be given. For the internal power of the mind is the only natural and conceivable cause of the origin of civilisation; insomuch, that without it civilisation is inexplicable. Still, the circumstances in which man finds himself placed may have an important effect upon him. In the early stages, climate, soil, and natural products have a potent bearing on the direction which man’s progress might take; if he can live without much effort, as when his wants are supplied by nature in abundance, he will feel inclined to enjoy himself in ease. But the increase of numbers sooner or later begins to affect him, and exertion in the form of migration or in other ways at last becomes necessary, and outward movements and conflicts would then commence. When historical conditions arise, they become the chief external causes of relative changes in the state of society, but such changes may not be always favourable to progress, though they often tend in that direction. The social and material conditions are exceedingly important factors in civilisation. It is principally the social feeling which originates society, and binds mankind into groups, tribes, and nations. Religion also often operates as a social influence, in association at first with the instinct of self-preservation, and at later stages in association with the higher emotions.
The lower and narrower forms of moral tendency spring out of human nature and the necessities of life—the social and sympathetic feelings. The higher sentiments and emotions, and the definite ideas of right and wrong, of justice, honesty, truth, and so on, were only developed slowly, and with extreme difficulty. The very sentiment and idea upon which justice itself rests is distinctly progressive; as at first it appears obscure and often contorted, so it has only been gradually growing in clearness, in purity, and in comprehensiveness. How far it is even yet from being perfect needs no exposition.
Following the lines above indicated, the geographical and physical features of the country will be described, seeing that they have had an influence on the development of the inhabitants. The direct action of climate, soil, and food, on man is difficult to estimate, and varies in different quarters of the globe; its operation is obscure, as it is independent of volition, and man is merely passive under it. But the indirect action of external nature is more potent on the development of man, for it presupposes a reaction on his part under the stimulus of his wants and activities, and in this relation the influence of physical agencies upon man and society, especially in the early stages, were everywhere felt.
We may safely assume that man has always sought to gratify the inherent cravings of his being. His primeval feelings and passions were strong, and sometimes bounded into activity with endless degrees of force; hence the varied ethnic affinities of races, the diversity of historical conditions, tribal and political conflicts, conquests, and amalgamations, which have contributed to produce such manifold results throughout the world.
Myth appears to spring from the same source as science; originally it was simply man’s early attempt to interpret his surroundings. In the myth-making stage of culture, man was ignorant of the causes of the natural forces around him, hence he was eagerly looking for something to give him an explanation of external phenomena. He found an explanation in his own will and feelings; and so every moving object, animate and inanimate, was thought to be impelled by a force akin to his own mind. All the mental powers that man found in himself were transferred to external nature. Thus the ancient world became inhabited by multitudes of spirits, demons, and gods. Long after the original mythical meanings were lost, new explanations were fastened on names and words, and thus the process proceeded; until the attainment of definite knowledge dethroned the swarms of spirits, gods, demons, and witches.
